Uncovering the Igorot Forts

The Lost Fortresses of the Cordilleras

Cordillera Mountain Rice Terraces

A haze of tropical heat hung heavy in the air as Spanish conquistadors, clad in steel and faith, carved their way deeper into the misty Cordillera mountains of the Philippines. Their mission, led by Captain García de Aldana y Cabrera in 1620, was to locate the fabled Igorot gold mines and subdue a fiercely independent people who had resisted foreign control. Expecting to find scattered, unorganized tribes, the Spaniards instead encountered something far more formidable: fortified settlements that revealed both ingenuity and resolve.

The Igorot are world-renowned for the breathtaking rice terraces they carved into mountainsides—a timeless testament to their engineering mastery. But their skills extended beyond agriculture. Accounts from Aldana’s expedition suggest that Igorot communities also built defensive works adapted to the rugged terrain, allowing them to withstand repeated colonial incursions. These fortifications, combined with guerrilla tactics and intimate knowledge of the mountains, became vital in their centuries-long resistance to Spanish rule.

Spanish records speak of a stronghold in Boa (or Bua), later fortified as Fort Santísima Trinidad. While it remains uncertain whether this fortress incorporated earlier Igorot defenses or was constructed anew, its very existence underscores the determination of both sides: the Spaniards seeking control, and the Igorots defending their homeland.

This blog post will revisit these “lost” fortresses of the Cordilleras—drawing from historical accounts, archaeological perspectives, and oral traditions—to explore how indigenous engineering and resilience shaped one of the most enduring stories of resistance in Philippine history.

The Historical Evidence: Aldana’s Account

In March 1620, the Spanish Empire—driven by its hunger for gold—dispatched an expedition into the heart of the Cordillera mountains. The forces, under Governor García de Aldana y Cabrera, were tasked with securing the Igorot gold mines and bringing the highland communities under colonial rule. What Aldana’s men encountered, however, was not the scattered and unorganized population they expected, but determined indigenous groups defending fortified positions in difficult terrain. His reports to colonial authorities stand as some of the earliest written records of these encounters.

What the Spanish found:

• Fortifications at Boa (Bua): Aldana’s account refers to a stronghold in a settlement called Boa (sometimes spelled Bua), which later became the site of Fort Santísima Trinidad. While it is uncertain whether this fortress incorporated earlier Igorot defenses or was constructed by the Spaniards themselves, its mention highlights that the area was recognized as a strategically important and fortified position.

  
  

• Spanish fortification efforts: Rather than clear evidence of “repurposing” Igorot structures, the records suggest the Spanish built or reinforced their own stronghold at Boa. The fact that they deemed such a fort necessary underscores their recognition of Igorot resilience and the need for defensive infrastructure in hostile terrain.

  
  

The outcome of the expedition:

• Continued resistance: Despite the establishment of a foothold, the Igorot peoples did not submit. Skilled in guerrilla tactics and deeply familiar with the mountain environment, they resisted sustained Spanish control and avoided permanent conquest.

  
  

• A familiar failure: Aldana’s expedition ultimately failed to secure lasting access to the gold mines. Like many campaigns that followed, it ended in withdrawal to the lowlands, beginning a long pattern of frustrated Spanish incursions into the Cordilleras.

  

  Atos such as this one with traditional Stoneworks at the Bontoc Museum in Bontoc, Mountain Province. Photo by David Stanley from Nanaimo, Canada, CC, via Wikimedia Commons

Anatomy of an Igorot Fort

The references to Igorot fortifications challenge colonial-era stereotypes of the Cordillera peoples as “primitive.” While they did not build European-style stone castles, their defensive works were cleverly adapted to the mountain landscape and proved highly effective against foreign incursions.

• Earthworks and ditches: Some accounts mention earthworks and ditches around settlements, likely serving as barriers to slow attackers and expose them to counterattacks from elevated positions.

  
  

• Stone and earth construction: The Igorots were highly skilled masons, a talent most visible in their rice terraces. Archaeological interpretations suggest they may have applied similar techniques to build low stone walls and embankments, relying on careful stone fitting and natural terrain rather than mortar. These methods made their structures resilient in an earthquake-prone region.

  
  

• Strategic placement: The greatest strength of these fortifications lay in their setting. Built on elevated ground and in narrow passes, they maximized the defensive advantages of the Cordillera terrain. Any invading force had to fight uphill, often funneled into exposed routes where Igorot warriors could launch devastating ambushes.

  
  

The Broader Context: Igorot Resistance

The Igorot people’s resistance was not a single battle but a centuries-long struggle that distinguished them from many other communities in the Philippines. While the Spanish gained control over much of the lowland territories, the Cordillera highlands remained a bastion of independence. The 1620 expedition under Aldana—and the many failed campaigns that followed—became part of a recurring pattern of colonial frustration in the region.

A Larger Strategy

• Forts and beyond: Fortified settlements were only one element of the Igorots’ defense. Their intimate knowledge of the rugged terrain gave them a decisive edge. Ambushes, surprise attacks, and the cutting of supply lines were common tactics. Spanish forces often found themselves harassed, weakened, and forced into retreat.

  
  

• A self-sufficient community: The rice terraces, perhaps the Igorots’ most enduring achievement, were not just feats of engineering but also the backbone of their autonomy. With secure food supplies, these highland communities could endure prolonged periods of conflict without depending on outside resources, unlike many lowland settlements that were more easily pressured into submission.

  
  

• Cultural unity and resolve: Though politically decentralized, the Igorot groups shared a warrior tradition and a deep cultural connection to their ancestral lands. This cohesion fueled their determination to resist both Spanish rule and religious conversion.

  
  

A Symbol of Resilience

The Igorots’ ability to maintain independence became a powerful symbol of indigenous pride. Their refusal to be conquered challenged colonial narratives of European superiority and stood as proof of the strength of local strategies adapted to the land. In Spanish accounts, they were often labeled “savages” or “bandits”—a rhetorical attempt to delegitimize their resistance and justify repeated campaigns. Yet these labels only highlight how deeply the Igorots unsettled colonial ambitions.

A Contrast to the Lowlands

The resilience of the Cordillera peoples stands in stark contrast to the fate of most lowland Filipinos, who were brought under Spanish political and religious control. Geography played a crucial role: the steep valleys, dense forests, and high peaks of the Cordilleras made sustained military occupation nearly impossible. This “friction of terrain” was something the Igorots understood intimately and used to their advantage, turning the land itself into a defensive ally.

Igorot Stone Kingdom, Baguio City photo by Ralff Nestor Nacor, CC, via Wikimedia Commons

Modern Legacy and Rediscovery

What Remains Today

Unlike the enduring stone walls of European castles, the Igorot fortifications—often built from earth, stone, and wooden palisades—have largely blended back into the landscape. Centuries of erosion, farming, and the reuse of materials mean that few visible traces of 17th-century structures survive today.

Still, the potential for discovery remains. Archaeologists such as Stephen Acabado have pioneered “pericolonial” studies in the Cordillera, investigating how areas beyond direct Spanish control adapted and resisted colonial pressures. These projects seek subtle clues—land modifications, settlement patterns, and oral traditions—that can shed light on how the Igorots defended their autonomy. Meanwhile, institutions like the Cordillera Studies Center in Baguio preserve valuable historical and ethnographic records that continue to inform both scholarship and community identity.

Cultural Heritage

The story of the Igorot forts and the sustained independence of Cordillera peoples is a vital part of Philippine history. It is more than a military account—it is a testament to indigenous resilience, ingenuity, and the enduring power of cultural identity.

• Empowerment and Pride: For present-day Igorot communities, this history reinforces pride in their heritage, reminding them of ancestors who successfully defended their land and way of life against powerful foreign forces.

  
  

• A Symbol of Unconquered Spirit: In a country where much of the colonial past is marked by subjugation, the Igorot resistance stands out as a rare and powerful example of autonomy maintained. It remains a symbol of an unconquered spirit among indigenous Filipinos.

  
  

• Inspiration for Modern Struggles: This legacy continues to resonate today. Igorot communities draw strength from their past as they face modern challenges, including mining projects, land disputes, and development pressures that threaten ancestral territories. The memory of their ancestors’ resilience fuels contemporary movements for land rights and self-determination.

  
  

Educational Value

Bringing this history into classrooms and cultural programs has lasting value:

• Rebalancing the Historical Narrative: It challenges colonial-centric accounts, highlighting indigenous agency and resistance alongside conquest.

• Honoring Indigenous Ingenuity: It showcases the sophistication of Igorot engineering and social organization, countering outdated portrayals of “primitiveness.”

• Fostering Cultural Competence: Learning about diverse historical experiences cultivates respect for different worldviews and sparks dialogue about historical accountability.

• Encouraging Deeper Learning: Integrating oral histories, ethnographic studies, and archaeological findings with textbooks offers a more authentic and holistic understanding of the past.

  
  

Beyond the Forts: Culture, Belief, and the Warrior Tradition

The Igorot people’s ability to resist colonization was rooted not only in strategy and fortifications but in the strength of their cultural systems. Behind the forts stood a society bound by spiritual belief, warrior traditions, and sophisticated ways of living that flourished in the Cordillera highlands.

A People United, Yet Decentralized

“Igorot” is a collective term that refers to several ethnolinguistic groups of the Cordillera, including the Ifugao, Bontoc, Kankanaey, Ibaloi, and others. Political life was typically organized at the village (ili) level rather than under a centralized kingdom.

This decentralized structure made conquest extremely difficult. Spanish advances were met by independent communities, each determined to defend its own territory. At the same time, a shared warrior ethic and cultural resolve enabled these groups to resist a common enemy, even without a single unifying state.

A Rich Spiritual Life

The Igorot worldview was deeply spiritual, rooted in animistic beliefs that saw the natural world as alive with spirits, or anitos. These spirits—ancestral and elemental—could be either benevolent or malevolent, guiding moral codes, rituals, and daily practices.

This spiritual connection to the land shaped both farming and warfare. Protecting ancestral territory meant safeguarding not just resources but also the spirits that dwelled there, making defense of the homeland both a practical and sacred duty.

The Igorot Warrior

Warriors held a central and respected role in society. From a young age, men were trained in combat skills and tactical knowledge, essential for survival in the mountains.

• Weaponry: Igorot warriors carried traditional arms such as the fal-feg (barbed war javelin), battle axes, and carved wooden shields. These tools, adapted to close-quarters combat and forested terrain, proved highly effective.

  
  

• Tactics: Masters of guerrilla warfare, they used ambushes, surprise attacks, and feigned retreats to lure enemies into disadvantageous ground. Their intimate knowledge of valleys, ridges, and passes allowed them to counter Spanish forces despite their superior weaponry.

  
  

• Headhunting: In its historical context, headhunting was not random violence but a ritual act tied to victory, justice, and community defense. It conferred prestige, reinforced spiritual beliefs, and symbolized the protection of one’s people. While this practice diminished over time with outside influence, its cultural significance underscores the depth of the warrior’s role.

  
  

Beyond the Battlefield

Though remembered for their resistance, the Igorots were not defined solely by warfare. They cultivated rich traditions of weaving, metalworking, and woodcarving. Their most enduring achievement, the rice terraces, represents a communal engineering system of extraordinary sophistication.

Seen in full, Igorot society was both resilient and complex—capable of defending itself in times of conflict, yet equally committed to sustaining life, culture, and harmony with the land. Recognizing this balance allows us to appreciate the forts not only as defenses but as part of a much broader way of life worth preserving.

The Dap-ay is a circular stone place of gathering found in most Cordillera villages. Photo by Shubert Ciencia, CC, via Wikimedia Commons

Takeaway: A Reminder of Ingenuity and Resistance

The story of the Igorot forts is a powerful testament to ingenuity and resistance, a vital chapter of Philippine history too often left out of colonial-centered narratives. Far from being “primitive” or disorganized, the Igorot peoples adapted their environment into effective defensive systems—settlements fortified with earthworks, ditches, and stone features that worked in harmony with the Cordillera’s rugged terrain. Spanish records, such as those from García de Aldana’s 1620 expedition, attest to the existence of fortified positions in the highlands, underscoring the determination of the people who built them.

Yet the true strength of the Igorots lay not only in walls or fortifications, but in a broader strategy. Guerrilla warfare, intimate knowledge of the mountains, and a fierce cultural resolve made conquest nearly impossible. Unlike much of the lowlands, which fell under Spanish dominion, the Cordillera remained unconquered—its people preserving autonomy, traditions, and beliefs across centuries of colonial pressure.

The legacy of these forts is more than archaeological or historical curiosity. It is a reminder that technological superiority alone does not ensure victory. Strategy, community resilience, and deep ties to the land can defy empires.

By sharing and teaching these stories, we challenge long-held misconceptions and honor the heritage of a people who endured and resisted. A visit to the Cordilleras today—where the rice terraces still stand as living monuments to indigenous genius—offers a chance to reflect on this legacy of resilience and to recognize a chapter of Philippine history that continues to inspire.

Frequently Asked Questions

Do Igorot forts still exist today? 

Not in visible ruins. Most were built of earth, stone, and wood, which have eroded over time. Archaeologists continue to study subtle traces in the Cordillera.

Who are the Igorot? 

“Igorot” is a collective name for several highland groups—Ifugao, Bontoc, Kankanaey, Ibaloi, and others—each with unique traditions but a shared history of resistance.

How were Igorot forts different from Spanish forts? 

They weren’t massive stone castles. Instead, they were earthworks, walls, and palisades built into the mountains, using terrain as their strongest defense.

Why is the 1620 Aldana expedition important? 

It’s one of the earliest Spanish accounts of encountering fortified Igorot settlements, showing how difficult the highlands were to conquer.

How did the Igorots resist colonization so effectively? 

They combined rugged terrain, guerrilla tactics, strong community ties, and a deep cultural connection to their land.

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